人工知能と呼ばれる分野は、文字通り、この知能を人工的に作り出すことを研究する分野だ*1。その歴史の始まりをどこに置くかは、色々と議論の余地があるだろう。計算機科学者のジョン・マッカーシーが初めて「人工知能」という用語を使った1955年としても良いし*2、数学者アラン・チューリングの記念碑的論文「計算する機械と知性(Computing Machinery and Intelligence)」が発表された1950年としても良い*3。あるいは、カレル・チャペックの小説において初めて「ロボット」という概念が登場した1920年頃とするのも面白いだろう*4。もっと遡ってデカルトが機械論を唱えた17世紀初頭とする人も多いはずだ*5。しかし、その歴史の重要な転換点の1つとして、電子計算機の誕生を外すことはできないということに関しては、皆一様に同意してくれるに違いない。
The original question, ‘Can machines think!’ I believe to be too meaningless to deserve discussion. Nevertheless I believe that at the end of the century the use of words and general educated opinion will have altered so much that one will be able to speak of machines thinking without expecting to be contradicted.
*4:Čapek, K. (1920). R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots). Prague: Aventinum.
*5:Descartes, R. (1637). Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences. Originally published in Leiden, the Netherlands.
% cat POSCAR
Pb9Cu(PO4)6O
1.000000000000009.9306823821051555-0.00000148183663610.0000000000000000-4.96533990779532008.6002239607356703-0.00000000000000000.00000000000000000.00000000000000007.4109945172796605
Pb Cu P O
91625
Direct
0.99868074496420780.76992024472165520.24747563808775090.99770143821625200.25770032161243190.75450569603067850.23007975527834520.22876050024256700.24747563808775090.74229967838756850.74000111760381680.75450569603067850.77123951475743780.00131926903579360.24747563808775090.25999889739618790.00229857578374910.75450569603067850.33333331299999710.66666662699999790.01022527689120110.33333331299999710.66666662699999790.49625634241320840.66666668700000290.33333334299999960.52171405486656160.66666668700000290.33333334299999960.06349556997149100.62383780616075770.59409894145273010.23306143754194670.37151156458220170.39138525743806400.74992510763462130.40590105854727000.02973883470801830.23306143754194670.60861474256193550.98012633714413290.74992510763462130.97026119529198400.37616222383924470.23306143754194670.01987369285586960.62848846541780100.74992510763462130.49703419500861900.64191278072821800.25048195730509430.47225741743748390.31241160861506680.74898194926363930.35808721927178230.85512141428040110.25048195730509430.68758839138493310.15984580782242750.74898194926363930.14487855571959630.50296577599137530.25048195730509430.84015416217757730.52774255356251010.74898194926363930.74658907843440980.69743736651627910.08773261965897750.25187103314869600.33025794899205290.90822697591277420.30256263348372070.04915168191812110.08773261965897750.66974205100794680.92161311315662750.90822697591277420.95084834708188500.25341095156559270.08773261965897750.07838691584337840.74812899685130650.90822697591277420.27510673205640970.36310860261387000.57374072524038730.71327438786866070.62014471971597120.41405283385768620.63689139738612980.91199815844253140.57374072524038730.37985528028402900.09312963815269460.41405283385768620.08800187055747470.72489329794359260.57374072524038730.90687039084731140.28672564213134180.41405283385768620.54416036868125130.41917364419373050.17643581357649580.47809002238685560.57334199967797690.77229354413875230.58082632580626710.12498672448752820.17643581357649580.42665797032201410.90474796270887430.77229354413875230.87501324551246940.45583963131874860.17643581357649580.09525200729112340.52190997761314450.7722935441387523-0.00000000000000000.00000000000000000.2917658511111268
% cat scf.in
&CONTROL
prefix ='lk99'
calculation ='scf'
tstress = .true.
tprnfor = .true.
outdir ='./out'
pseudo_dir ='../pp'
/
&SYSTEM
ibrav =0
nat =41
ntyp =4
ecutwfc =40
ecutrho =160
occupations ='smearing'
degauss =0.003675
smearing ='gaussian'
/
&ELECTRONS
electron_maxstep =100
conv_thr = 1e-09
mixing_beta =0.7
diago_david_ndim =4
/
ATOMIC_SPECIES
Pb 207.2 Pb.pbe-dn-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
Cu 63.546 Cu.pbe-spn-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
P 30.973761998 P.pbe-nl-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
O 15.999 O.pbe-n-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
ATOMIC_POSITIONS angstrom
Pb 1.12932322943.75474480971.8340405970
Pb -1.30239646287.94976235315.5916375765
Pb 1.14897518647.70087342081.8340405970
Pb -1.26815672943.49743362075.5916375765
Pb -2.27829841595.74482820921.8340405970
Pb 2.57055319225.75325046585.5916375765
Pb 4.96534119112.86674107330.0757794710
Pb 4.96534119112.86674107333.6777530328
Pb 0.00000000000.00000000003.8664200002
Cu 0.00000000000.00000000000.4705653209
P 8.21057220252.24264235471.7272170358
P 6.71134304600.49925942255.5576908611
P 3.88321103005.98924292961.7272170358
P 6.14263951625.56256386015.5576908611
P 2.80224034060.36833793551.7272170358
P 2.04204101112.53839993735.5576908611
O 6.71391378962.65385204551.8563204123
O 3.13860803248.42029163405.5507011195
O 4.27542219804.48749387791.8563204123
O -3.89614928747.10819169145.5507011195
O 3.90668758561.45887729651.8563204123
O 0.75754125501.67196311425.5507011195
O -1.01421682123.13137587750.6501859633
O 0.86140767978.57377414496.7308651389
O 2.76059854306.15619774890.6501859633
O -2.89046886465.05933708106.7308651389
O -1.74638172177.91287281320.6501859633
O 2.02906118483.56733521376.7308651389
O 5.89438051300.25607387914.2519893691
O -0.96127006902.46664186173.0685432816
O 6.76172564114.97664632434.2519893691
O 3.30980171126.53441798933.0685432816
O 2.23991741913.36750301654.2519893691
O -2.34853164238.19938658863.0685432816
O 8.28788466170.73824575151.3075648471
O 6.86626255202.06412802215.7234632213
O 5.14740047626.80839578491.3075648471
O 4.70996380234.91429378805.7234632213
O 1.46073843531.05358168341.3075648471
O 3.31979721891.62180140975.7234632213
O 0.00000000005.73348214662.1622751229
K_POINTS {automatic}445000
CELL_PARAMETERS angstrom
9.93068238210.00000000000.0000000000-4.96534119118.60022321980.00000000000.00000000000.00000000007.4109945173
% cat input.in
&CONTROL
prefix ='lk99'
calculation ='nscf'
tstress = .true.
tprnfor = .true.
outdir ='./out'
pseudo_dir ='../pp'
/
&SYSTEM
ibrav =0
nat =41
ntyp =4
ecutwfc =40
ecutrho =160
occupations ='tetrahedra'
/
&ELECTRONS
electron_maxstep =100
conv_thr = 1e-09
mixing_beta =0.7
diago_david_ndim =4
/
ATOMIC_SPECIES
Pb 207.2 Pb.pbe-dn-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
Cu 63.546 Cu.pbe-spn-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
P 30.973761998 P.pbe-nl-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
O 15.999 O.pbe-n-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
ATOMIC_POSITIONS angstrom
Pb 1.12932322943.75474480971.8340405970
Pb -1.30239646287.94976235315.5916375765
Pb 1.14897518647.70087342081.8340405970
Pb -1.26815672943.49743362075.5916375765
Pb -2.27829841595.74482820921.8340405970
Pb 2.57055319225.75325046585.5916375765
Pb 4.96534119112.86674107330.0757794710
Pb 4.96534119112.86674107333.6777530328
Pb 0.00000000000.00000000003.8664200002
Cu 0.00000000000.00000000000.4705653209
P 8.21057220252.24264235471.7272170358
P 6.71134304600.49925942255.5576908611
P 3.88321103005.98924292961.7272170358
P 6.14263951625.56256386015.5576908611
P 2.80224034060.36833793551.7272170358
P 2.04204101112.53839993735.5576908611
O 6.71391378962.65385204551.8563204123
O 3.13860803248.42029163405.5507011195
O 4.27542219804.48749387791.8563204123
O -3.89614928747.10819169145.5507011195
O 3.90668758561.45887729651.8563204123
O 0.75754125501.67196311425.5507011195
O -1.01421682123.13137587750.6501859633
O 0.86140767978.57377414496.7308651389
O 2.76059854306.15619774890.6501859633
O -2.89046886465.05933708106.7308651389
O -1.74638172177.91287281320.6501859633
O 2.02906118483.56733521376.7308651389
O 5.89438051300.25607387914.2519893691
O -0.96127006902.46664186173.0685432816
O 6.76172564114.97664632434.2519893691
O 3.30980171126.53441798933.0685432816
O 2.23991741913.36750301654.2519893691
O -2.34853164238.19938658863.0685432816
O 8.28788466170.73824575151.3075648471
O 6.86626255202.06412802215.7234632213
O 5.14740047626.80839578491.3075648471
O 4.70996380234.91429378805.7234632213
O 1.46073843531.05358168341.3075648471
O 3.31979721891.62180140975.7234632213
O 0.00000000005.73348214662.1622751229
K_POINTS {automatic}667000
CELL_PARAMETERS angstrom
9.93068238210.00000000000.0000000000-4.96534119118.60022321980.00000000000.00000000000.00000000007.4109945173
% cat input.in
&CONTROL
prefix ='lk99'
calculation ='bands'
tstress = .true.
tprnfor = .true.
outdir ='./out'
pseudo_dir ='../pp'
verbosity ='high'
/
&SYSTEM
ibrav =0
nat =41
ntyp =4
ecutwfc =40
ecutrho =160
occupations ='smearing'
degauss =0.003675
smearing ='gaussian'
/
&ELECTRONS
electron_maxstep =100
conv_thr = 1e-09
mixing_beta =0.7
diago_david_ndim =4
/
ATOMIC_SPECIES
Pb 207.2 Pb.pbe-dn-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
Cu 63.546 Cu.pbe-spn-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
P 30.973761998 P.pbe-nl-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
O 15.999 O.pbe-n-kjpaw_psl.1.0.0.UPF
ATOMIC_POSITIONS angstrom
Pb 1.12932322943.75474480971.8340405970
Pb -1.30239646287.94976235315.5916375765
Pb 1.14897518647.70087342081.8340405970
Pb -1.26815672943.49743362075.5916375765
Pb -2.27829841595.74482820921.8340405970
Pb 2.57055319225.75325046585.5916375765
Pb 4.96534119112.86674107330.0757794710
Pb 4.96534119112.86674107333.6777530328
Pb 0.00000000000.00000000003.8664200002
Cu 0.00000000000.00000000000.4705653209
P 8.21057220252.24264235471.7272170358
P 6.71134304600.49925942255.5576908611
P 3.88321103005.98924292961.7272170358
P 6.14263951625.56256386015.5576908611
P 2.80224034060.36833793551.7272170358
P 2.04204101112.53839993735.5576908611
O 6.71391378962.65385204551.8563204123
O 3.13860803248.42029163405.5507011195
O 4.27542219804.48749387791.8563204123
O -3.89614928747.10819169145.5507011195
O 3.90668758561.45887729651.8563204123
O 0.75754125501.67196311425.5507011195
O -1.01421682123.13137587750.6501859633
O 0.86140767978.57377414496.7308651389
O 2.76059854306.15619774890.6501859633
O -2.89046886465.05933708106.7308651389
O -1.74638172177.91287281320.6501859633
O 2.02906118483.56733521376.7308651389
O 5.89438051300.25607387914.2519893691
O -0.96127006902.46664186173.0685432816
O 6.76172564114.97664632434.2519893691
O 3.30980171126.53441798933.0685432816
O 2.23991741913.36750301654.2519893691
O -2.34853164238.19938658863.0685432816
O 8.28788466170.73824575151.3075648471
O 6.86626255202.06412802215.7234632213
O 5.14740047626.80839578491.3075648471
O 4.70996380234.91429378805.7234632213
O 1.46073843531.05358168341.3075648471
O 3.31979721891.62180140975.7234632213
O 0.00000000005.73348214662.1622751229
K_POINTS crystal
730.00000000000.00000000000.00000000001 ! GAMMA
0.07692307690.00000000000.000000000010.15384615380.00000000000.000000000010.23076923080.00000000000.000000000010.30769230770.00000000000.000000000010.38461538460.00000000000.000000000010.46153846150.00000000000.000000000010.50000000000.00000000000.00000000001 ! M
0.45238095240.09523809520.000000000010.40476190480.19047619050.000000000010.35714285710.28571428570.000000000010.33333333330.33333333330.00000000001 ! K
0.28888888890.28888888890.000000000010.24444444440.24444444440.000000000010.20000000000.20000000000.000000000010.15555555560.15555555560.000000000010.11111111110.11111111110.000000000010.06666666670.06666666670.000000000010.02222222220.02222222220.000000000010.00000000000.00000000000.00000000001 ! G
0.00000000000.00000000000.066666666710.00000000000.00000000000.133333333310.00000000000.00000000000.200000000010.00000000000.00000000000.266666666710.00000000000.00000000000.333333333310.00000000000.00000000000.400000000010.00000000000.00000000000.466666666710.00000000000.00000000000.50000000001 ! A
0.07692307690.00000000000.500000000010.15384615380.00000000000.500000000010.23076923080.00000000000.500000000010.30769230770.00000000000.500000000010.38461538460.00000000000.500000000010.46153846150.00000000000.500000000010.50000000000.00000000000.50000000001 ! L
0.45238095240.09523809520.500000000010.40476190480.19047619050.500000000010.35714285710.28571428570.500000000010.33333333330.33333333330.50000000001 ! H
0.28888888890.28888888890.500000000010.24444444440.24444444440.500000000010.20000000000.20000000000.500000000010.15555555560.15555555560.500000000010.11111111110.11111111110.500000000010.06666666670.06666666670.500000000010.02222222220.02222222220.500000000010.00000000000.00000000000.50000000001 ! A
0.50000000000.00000000000.50000000001 ! L
0.50000000000.00000000000.433333333310.50000000000.00000000000.366666666710.50000000000.00000000000.300000000010.50000000000.00000000000.233333333310.50000000000.00000000000.166666666710.50000000000.00000000000.100000000010.50000000000.00000000000.033333333310.50000000000.00000000000.00000000001 ! M
0.33333333330.33333333330.50000000001 ! H
0.33333333330.33333333330.433333333310.33333333330.33333333330.366666666710.33333333330.33333333330.300000000010.33333333330.33333333330.233333333310.33333333330.33333333330.166666666710.33333333330.33333333330.100000000010.33333333330.33333333330.033333333310.33333333330.33333333330.00000000001 ! K
0.33333333330.3333333333-0.066666666710.33333333330.3333333333-0.133333333310.33333333330.3333333333-0.200000000010.33333333330.3333333333-0.266666666710.33333333330.3333333333-0.333333333310.33333333330.3333333333-0.400000000010.33333333330.3333333333-0.466666666710.33333333330.3333333333-0.50000000001 ! H2
CELL_PARAMETERS angstrom
9.93068238210.00000000000.0000000000-4.96534119118.60022321980.00000000000.00000000000.00000000007.4109945173
ここで紹介した仮想通貨はPoWを使ったものだったが、このPoWは、取引にかかる時間が長いことや、電力消費による環境への悪影響が指摘されている。ここまで読んだ読者ならそれが何故起こるのかを理解できるだろう。そこで、これに代わる方法としてPoS(Proof of Stake)やPoB(Proof of Believability)などの承認システムが提案されている。